Biotechnology
New findings in the field of molecular biology are enabling the
refinement of techniques and methods that can directly intervene on
the genetic heritage of living organisms (human beings, plants,
animals and microorganisms). Biotechnology is based on the
fundamental concepts explained below. Each organism has its own
genome, containing all the information required for its development
and composed of a DNA. The latter can be compared to an alphabet of
four letters (GATC). If these are read in sequence they compose
genes, which are comparable to “sentences” that encode
proteins (the main constituents of all living organisms). It is
important to note that the genetic code is universal, due to its
significance for biotechnology in general. The code is universal
because a DNA sequence is interpreted in the same way by all living
beings, from bacteria to human beings.
The universality of the genetic code and the fact that processes
regulating protein synthesis are, in general, common to all living
beings have, for example, made it possible to insert a bacterial
gene inside a plant and make it work. In theory, today’s
modern technology is able to express any character by inserting an
isolated gene into any organism.
Biotechnology is applied to different fields:
- in medicine, it is used to produce
pharmaceutical products (human insulin, growth hormone, interferon,
interleukins); vaccines (hepatitis B, flue, whooping cough);
diagnostic products (monoclonal antibodies, nucleotidic probes) and
gene therapy;
- in zootechnics, one of the most important
applications is the production of the somatotropic hormone that
enables cows to produce a higher quantity of milk per day;
- in the food industry, the most significant
applications regard the production of enzymes used for processing
(maize, dairy products, meat, drinks) and preserving foods. One of
the enzymes obtained through biotechnology is chymosin, which is
used to produce cheese;
- in the environmental field, biotechnology is
used to resolve some of the most urgent environmental problems such
as waste disposal, treatment of gas emissions, treatment of liquid
effluents and reclamation of contaminated sites. Their application
is based on the utilization of genetically modified microorganisms
which are able to decompose compounds and toxic substances;
- in agriculture, many vegetable species have
been modified to obtain plants that are able to more effiently
resist environmental stress, diseases and parassites and tolerate
some herbicides. Scientists have also intervened to realize plants
with modified nutritional features. Until today, the species that
have mostly been used are maize, rape, soya, cotton and rice.
Unfortunately, due to the unquestionable benefits that can
derive from the release of GMOs in the environment, there are many
questions that mankind will need to discuss before engaging into a
journey that seems to be full of difficulties, risks for human
health, for animals, for agriculture and also for organisms with
which GMOs could interact.
Among the major risks are those related food
safety, which could be compromised by the introduction of toxic
elements. Allergies and pathogen resistance to drugs could also be
caused.
Even the environment could suffer serious consequences following
the introduction of GMOs. Problems could be caused by the
persistence of a gene, of the transgenic organism or of the
products that derive from it. Other problems could be caused by an
oversensitivity of useful or unharmful organisms, an increase in
the use of chemical substances in agriculture, the unpredictability
of the modified gene or stability of the transgenic organism.
Agriculture is indeed among the sectors that
have a high “GMO risk”. In particular, risks can be
generated by the induction of resistance and tolerance in noxious
organisms, by the selection of infestant pests or “highly
infestant” organisms, by the alteration of nutritional values
and, lastly, by the reduction of cultivated varieties and
biodiversity loss. Risks deriving from the interaction with other
organisms are also quite important. This could generate a dangerous
horizontal transfer of genes, the pollution of the genetic base
through the dispersion of seeds or pollen, the transfer of genes to
microorganisms (DNA uptake) and finally the generation of new
viruses by genetic recombination.
The role of scientific and particularly of public research must
therefore not be limited to finding new advantageous applications
of modern biotechnology but it must also be able to evaluate and
prevent risks related to the introduction of such techniques in the
environment. It must be able to give the public opinion
comprehensive and reassuring answers.
